Academic Writing Skills Guide Essay Example for Free

Academic Writing Skills place EssayIntroduction Preface to the basic edition (2002) We consecrate written this guide for you to admirer you on the way to becoming proficient in your chosen field of economics or communication channel administration. As you advance in your studies, you testament demonstrate your proficiency through and through the essays, text file, case reports, and other texts that you bring out. Your authorship is thus a marker of your relative expertness in your discipline. Yet, it is also a means in itself. Writing helps you organize your own ideas, discover the strengths and weaknesses in your entailing, and internalize the hit the hayledge you construct. We hope this guide forget help you on your way. But like tout ensemble guides, it does non contain everything. As Voltaire said, the best way to be boring is to leave nonhing egress This guide acts as a starter it is up to you to . go deeper. Just as you go forth find with your writing ass ignments, we in addition have g whiz through the writing subroutine in the construction of this guide. We constructed a plan, come toed numerous sources and people, wrote the text, revised it, and edited it, all the while trying to keep it clear and simple.See to a greater extentThe 3 Types of Satire EssayIn putting together this guide, we have aimed to follow Ernest Hemingway who said, My aim is to put down on wall news musical theme publisher what I realize and what I feel in the best and simplest way. We hope we have succeeded. Henri Mennens, MSc Robert Wilkinson, MSc Second edition (2010) The second edition of this guide to pedantic writing is a thorough revision of the kickoff edition (2002). Apart from changes to chapter 2, we have signifi stick outtly changed chapters 3 and 5. In bringition, we have completely rewritten chapter 4 on citing and referencing in line with the current (2010) citation and reference norms of the American mental experience.Major changes a lso entail the groundwork of many to a greater extent than examples. In addition, the format lookments for submitting papers has changed. 2 Guide to Academic Writing Skills Introduction We have not included randomness on grammar and punctuation, since we expect students at the crop of Business and political economy to have a good command of these aspects on entry. However, we ar awargon that many users of this guide will wish to feelk reassurance in this respect. We recommend users to consult a good grammar track record or one of the many good writing sites on the Internet.Robert Wilkinson, MSc Jeannette Hommes, MA NOTE the Guide is not presented in the format that you have to present your papers (see member 5). However, where extracts of student essays ar given, these are in the required format. Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the many people and sources we have consulted during the construction of this guide. In particular, we would like to express thanks to H enri Mennens for his work on the offset edition, and Keith Campbell of the Language Centre who adapted the first edition of this guide in 2006.We also thank the Academic Writing tutors of the Language Centre for their inputs and the many students who have made use of the first edition. Furthermore, we are indebted to Mike Hannay and Lachlan Mackenzie, whose book Effective writing in English A resource guide (both the 1996 and 2002 editions) has been a major source of information for chapters 2 and 3. We acknowledge the American Psychological Association whose Publication manual (American Psychological Association, 6th ed. , 2010) has been an excellent support in the construction of chapter 4 in this guide.Finally, we are grateful to the Director of the School of Business and Economics for supporting the production of this second edition. 3 Guide to Academic Writing Skills Introduction 1. Introduction Academic writing covers the wide chuck of specific writing tasks that you are re quired to write during the course of your academic studies papers, reports, publications reviews, projects, case studies, dissertations, theses, research papers, and articles. Some of these text types are quite antiquated outside the academic environment (papers, literature reviews, dissertations, theses) others (reports, projects, etc.) whitethorn well be aiming at a much broader public.However, what they all have in common is a similar type of indorser a person educated in the specialist field (here economics or commerce studies), and usually acting as a captain in that field. These target readers represent the professional community of which you aim to become a member. To be accepted as member requires you to abide the norms and standards that the professional community expects. Thus with regard to writing, you are expect to adhere to the norms expected by the (international) academic community.Compare this to a relay race in athletics. In the relay race, you run with thr ee other firsts. If you are one of the 2 middle runners, you have to collect the baton smoothly from the preliminary runner and pass it on to the next runner. In the relay race your team runs against other teams (your local community). All of you have to run according to the set of rules concord by the sports governing physical structure (the professional community). If you do not, your team may be disqualified. The rules set the framework for a potentially great race, and within the rules in that respect is vast scope for individual flair and gift.So with academic writing you have to write according to the rules however to write well demands your own indi, vidual talent and enterprise. Just as a highly skilled athlete knows how to use the rules to his advantage, so an expert writer uses the norms and standards of professional academic writing to persuade readers of the take place executive of his argument. We should not extend this athletics analogy too far sports have clear sets of rules that everyone can read and study academic writing does not. What a professional academic field has is a set of overt norms, such as a style guide.This guide is based on the editorial style requirements depict in the half-dozenth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010). Alongside these is a set of covert norms that are just as powerful. Examples of the covert norms will be the nature of argumentation that is considered acceptable in the field. Covert norms are hidden and therefore take a long time to acquire. Most novice writers acquire them through extensive reading in the field, and by paying active attention to the way other writers use 4Guide to Academic Writing Skills Introduction language. This put to work of acquisition demands close observation of how expert writers use haggle and expressions diametricly in different types of text, e. g. literature reviews or case studies in a single field (e. g. marketing). Academic papers (and most other forms of academic writing) are typically expository or argumentative. An expository or informative paper describes or explains a particular set of phenomena, and provides an account of why these phenomena are found in one or more specific situations or contexts.The goal of the expository paper is also to acquaint the reader with a body of knowledge. An argumentative or persuasive paper essential choose a side, make a case for it, consider and refute alternative arguments, and prove to the un specifyd reader that the opinion it presents is the best one. You must be aware of other sides and be fair to them dismissing them completely will weaken your own argument. It is always best to take a side that you intend in, preferably with the most supporting evidence. To incur a good academic paper you should go through a number of heads, called the writing work.The following 7 delivers can be distinguished The writing process 1. Thinking spirit level 2. seek stage 3. Outline stage 4. Drafting stage 5. Revising stage 6. Editing stage 7. Final version stage Planning process Transfer in a first tipple output Revising redaction Final output epithet 1. Stages of the writing process 1. Thinking stage In this stage you determine your topic area (which may of course already be given), brainstorm just aboutwhat ideas on the topic, select, reject and focus those ideas, before arriving at your final examination choice. 5 Guide to Academic Writing Skills.Introduction 2. Research stage Here you search for and study bearground literature and other materials, analyse the results, draw your own conclusions and interpretations, etc. 3. Outline stage In this stage you draft an digest of the paper you intend to write, setting out your main aim or purpose in the paper (the purpose recital or thesis statement), sketch how you will develop the points that follow from the purpose, and indicate how you will conclude the paper. 4. Drafting stage Here you put down on book binding advantageively improved versions of your paper.5. Revising stage In this stage you scan your work on a macro level for logical coherence, sustaining whether you charter to add or delete information, whether sections need rephrasing for clarification. 6. Editing stage Here you edit your text on a micro level, splinteringing the grammar, spelling, punctuation, in-text citations, references and the layout. 7. Final version stage In this stage you set out the final paper neatly and clearly. Writing a paper is recursive you do not start at the beginning, and work through straight to the end, and that is that.At all times you will be backtracking or loopingso that as you are , writing your first draft, you may discover you need to add more information and have to return to the research stage. During the revising stage, you may discover that your original plan was too broad, and so decide to cut out a whole section. You may produce several rev ised versions of the paper before your final version. Do not forget to allow yourself plenty of time between writing your first draft and your final version. Figure 2 illustrates the three groups of actions in writing a paper, the homework process, the transfer, and revision and editing.The figure emphasizes the recursive nature of writing a paper in that each action not lone(prenominal) feeds into the next but feeds back into the previous actions, entailing revision of those actions. 6 Guide to Academic Writing Skills Introduction You may start with a plan, conduct some research (reading, library and/or Internet search), analyse and and therefore synthesize the information you have acquired, construct a question or a statement that you will examine, draft an outline, write a rough draft of the introduction, start writing the body, consequently stop.You go back, conduct some more research, adjust your outline, order the body, write a bit more, adjust the introduction, perhap s adjust the statement of your purpose, then stop again. You conduct more research, rewrite the body again, draft a conclusion, go back to the introduction, adjust the purpose, rewrite the introduction, then stop. You let the paper simmerfor a while, then reread it, adjusting here and there for content accuracy, perhaps search or proof for a contrary argument, throw out less germane(predicate) parts of the paper, check the logical development of your ideas and arguments, and wrap up the conclusion.Then you check again for spelling (using the spellchecker, but also reading carefully word by word), check for grammar (using the grammar checkers wisely), check all punctuation, check the layout, check the citations and the references. You check too for sentence length (eliminate very long, rambling sentences), check paragraph expression (particularly if the topic of the paragraph changes in the paragraph check the subjects of the main verbs), check the logical links between paragrap hs and sections. And so on. Figure 2 The writing process and its recursive nature (Bruer, 1993).This guide is organized as follows. Chapter 2 focuses on the intend process, describing the planning activities and the construction of an outline. Chapter 3 elaborates on the structuring of the paper, through a detailed discussion of the three parts of a paper, introduction, body, and conclusion. Moreover, structuring a paper effectively requires that you write wellconstructed paragraphs this chapter also provides brief guidelines on paragraph organization. Chapter 4 explains the importance of citing sources and giving references, and provides guidelines how to put them in the paper in a correct way.Chapter 5 concentrates on finalizing the paper. This chapter discusses the format requirements, text revision and the evaluation of the paper. To conclude, this guide helps you to master the process of academic writing, which you can apply to the specific writing assignments during the cou rse of your academic studies. It specifies the elements necessary to a successful academic paper. But keep in mind two things. First, each assignment will be different and require a different organization. Second, writing is a skill7 Guide to Academic Writing Skills Introductionyou only get better at a skill through regular practice. Regular practice tugs to routine and expertise. The application of the principles of this guide can be of use until your last writing examination the final thesis. However, this guide just contains a brief summary of the different topics discussed. For more information you should consult literature, especially the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010, 6th ed. , in the University Library), and the Internet. Besides, keep in mind that the writing process is not just simply following a set of rules.Try to develop your own style, expertise and talent, in order to distinguish yourself. Good luck with your writing career 8 Guide to Academic Writing Skills The planning process 2. The planning process In order to get a good start to writing your paper, it is important that you go successfully through the planning process. This chapter describes the different activities of the planning process. Then, section 2. 2 discusses the most important stage of the planning process the construction of an outline. 2. 1. The planning activities.During the planning process, according to Hannay and Mackenzie (2002), you are concerned with six major activities 1 Generating ideas for the content. Ideas for content can come from several sources from your own knowledge, from discussions with other people, and from various media sources (written texts, audio-visual media and electronic media). Brainstorming techniques help you to generate ideas in the first two categories. 2 Selecting and classifying points. Here you are concerned with ordering your ideas. Analyse them to determine the extent to which they are attached with eac h other.Ideas and concepts that are highly connected are likely to form key points in your texts. Those which are less closely connected may form essential supporting topics, or may need to be abandoned. Some may require more development. Always be prepared to get rid of ideas that prove not to be relevant to your argument. 3 Establishing your perspective. In this activity you need to decide what angle you are outlet to take with your material. Are you taking a historical perspective, or only discussing the present situation? Are you taking an objective position, or are you bringing in your own personal standpoint?Are you taking a general viewpoint, or only a specific case? Are you looking at the matter from your home country perspective? Are you discussing a general issue or only a nas tional situation? 9 Guide to Academic Writing Skills The planning process 4 Determining your intention. at a time you need to consider what you want to do with the text. Do you want to present both sides of an argument equally, or do you want to present only one side? Do you need to give examples, or will your argumentation be ample on its own? Do you want to persuade the reader of your opinion, or are you only wishing to describe the matter?Do you want just to present a problem, or do you want to passing solutions as well? What you are going to do with your text must become very clear to the reader in the thesis statement this statement directs the readers to the purpose of the text. 5 Formulating a draft title, structuring the introduction and conclusion. Here you should set down a working title and devise a draft structure for the introduction and the conclusion. At this stage your drafting should only be provisional you should write the actual version only after you have written the body of thepaper.This is because you do need to know what your introduction is indeed introducing, and you need to know what your conclusion is concluding. A useful rule of thumb is Plan you r introduction, then your conclusion, and then your body, but write your body, then your conclusion and then your introduction. 6 Drafting paragraph themes. At this stage, go back to the ideas (themes) you have selected and classified. Now you have to decide which will be suitable for your text. Each theme usually is the basis for a single paragraph.Each theme too will require sufficient development so do not try to include too many. As a rough guide, you probably cannot negotiate adequately more than about 4 themes in a 1000-word paper (roughly 3 pages), while a 2500-word paper (roughly 6 pages) will seem overwhelming if it includes more than 9 or 10 themes. Once you have selected your themes, list the points that you need to make to support the theme in the paragraph. 2. 2. The planning outline The goal of the planning outline is to help you organize your ideas, and present them in a logical order.It serves to identify the relationships between the ideas it allows you to see how related ideas can be grouped together, and which ideas you can cut out, and which ideas need more support. A good outline helps you to maintain the direction in your paper, and prevents you from getting distracted into irrelevant information. 10 Guide to Academic Writing Skills The planning process Figure 3 lists six abuses that may be considered in the development of a planning outline. 1 Decide the purpose of your paper and the audience you are writing for. 2.Develop a statement in which you define the goal or purpose of your paper (commonly called thesis statement). This clarifies what you are going to present or argue in the paper. At this stage you may not have a definitive version of this statement. 3 List all the important points you want to handle in the paper. These points have to be split in three main parts introduction, body, and conclusion. The points in the introduction include the items that lead to the purpose or thesis statement (so-called background information), and a statement of the purpose or goal that should now be defined precisely.When you are planning your paper, you will group all your ideas around one central theme. This theme forms the core of your purpose or thesis statement or research question. The points in the body have to be logically organized so that they follow from your purpose and lead towards the conclusion. In a larger paper (for example a Master thesis), you usually develop a set of subquestions, covering the s points that lead to an get along to the research question. By answering step by step the different subquestions in the body, you can draw a structured and well-founded conclusion at the end.The points in the conclusion include the summary of the facts that lead to an answer to the statement or question you started with and the answer itself. 4 Categorize the points in the body under general headings so that you can identify which points need more development (e. g. you have to do more reading) and which point s are not useful or relevant (delete these). Choose precise, concrete words for the headings avoid vague terms. concern the headings to the purpose of your paper. If your paper is describing a situation, you are more likely to choose noun structures for headings (for example Failure of Bretton Woods).If your paper is oriented to action, you may choose verbal structures typically -ing forms in English (for example Reforming the auditor duties). s 5 Work out how one idea follows logically from the previous one. Note down how you will make the transitions from point to point. This is a key step, but one that is often underrated. Failure to think out the transitions in the planning stage can be you more time in the revising stage. 6 Finally, look back at the whole outline, and check that you are satisfied that it all hangs together logically and conceptually. Now you are ready to start writing. Figure 3.Six steps in the planning process. Outlines are generative. They are most useful i f you modify them as you write in line with new thoughts or information. Some of you may find that a simple, less detailed written outline is sufficient you may be very competent in holding the full structure in your mind but you may add more detailed points to the outline as you progress. Most of you, however, find that a relatively detailed outline on paper is an effective reminder of what the goal of your paper is and of what you have selected from the literature, and an effective guide to how far you have come.11 Guide to Academic Writing Skills The planning process An outline as a simple list of points (see Figure 4, box a) may not help you organize and structure your paper. A more organized outline (see Figure 4, box b) will help you see how the different parts hang together and may facilitate the writing. Many American writing textbooks and websites provide detailed guidance on writing outlines. nether the American convention, outlines are structured using the following sym bols (Roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic numerals).This is only a convention used in the writing process it is not part of APA style, and under no circumstances should it be used in the final paper (see for example Purdue University Online Writing Lab http//owl. english. purdue. edu/owl/resource/544/03/). nook c (Figs ure 4) illustrates the framework using the American conventions. a Unhelpful outline Topic The Struggle for the Mobile Phone Market 1. Description of the European wide awake phone market. 2. Major players Nokia, Ericsson, Siemens. 3. Focus of youth market. b Structured outline 4. Future trends in the market European focussing case on choline chloride compact 1.Introduction 1. 1. Background to case choline chloride cartel 1. 2. Aim of paper (thesis) European Commission took the right decision to fine the firms, because they had formed a cartel, but the fines are not sufficient to discourage cartel forming in the future. Key economic issues 2. 1. Market descript ion 2. 1. 1. Producers 2. 1. 2. Consumers 2. 2. Agreements 2. 2. 1. Price fixing 2. 2. 2. Market sharing Economic restore on competition 3. 1. Fixed prices raised income for producers 3. 2. Market sharing reduced competition 3. 3. Economic involve of cartel (Perloff) 3. 3. 1. Oligopoly 3. 3. 2.Welfare analysis European Commission decision 4. 1. That the market is an oligopoly 4. 2. That the market is not competitive 4. 3. Punishment for firms 4. 3. 1. Fines 4. 3. 2. Leniency ruling Conclusions 5. 1. Summary 5. 2. Price setting agreements have a big impact on the market 5. 3. Fines based on gravity and duration of infringement 5. 4. Leniency fines not high enough to discourage cartel formation in future. 2. 3. 4. 5. 12 Guide to Academic Writing Skills c Classic formal outline (American style) I. II. First item Second item A. sub-item B. sub-item 1. sub-sub-item 2. sub-sub-item Third item.The planning process III. Figure 4. Examples of outlines. 13 Guide to Academic Writing Skills S tructuring 3. Structuring On the basis of the outline, described in the previous chapter, it is now possible to continue with the structure of your paper. You started the structuring process already in steps three and four of the construction of an outline, described in section 2. 2. The structuring process continues by implementing these steps in the paper, starting with the introduction. component 3. 1 discusses the structuring process of the introduction, section 3. 2. covers the middle part (or body), and section 3.3. the discussion and conclusion. Structuring a paper effectively also requires that you write well-constructed paragraphs. This is discussed briefly in section 3. 4. 3. 1. The introduction The introduction has three functions, all of which must be present. First, it sets the context by introducing the topic of your paper. This is called the background information. This information leads to the second function it specifies the purpose of the paper. Finally, the intro duction contains a short outline of how you are going to handle the aspects of your topic in the rest of the paper.Any introduction in which one of these functions is missing is necessarily incomplete. The length of the introduction varies from one paragraph to several pages, depending on the total length of the paper. Three other factors influence the length. First, how familiar are your readers with the context? If, for example, you are writing about small and medium-sized businesses in Nepal, you may have to explain much more of the Nepalese background for readers who are less familiar with that country, since the readers may wish to compare Nepalese SMEs with those in other developing countries.Second, what the type of paper (or genre) are you writing? If, for example, you are writing a review of the academic literature on internet auction markets, your introduction might be quite short, since you will include the information from your review in the middle of your paper. Simila rly, if you are examining a competition case from, say, the European Commission or the US Department of Justice, then you may not need much background information, for you can refer almost straightaway to the case.On the other hand, in a paper in which you argue a point of view (e.g. the abolition of trade subsidies), then you may need to present adequate background information before introducing your pur- 14 Guide to Academic Writing Skills Structuring pose. Third, what economics or business discipline are you addressing? The length of introductions may differ between econometrics, labour economics, marketing, strategic management, and so on. It is wise to check by reading relevant previous papers in the target discipline and the target genre, as well as taking the readers familiarity into account.Nevertheless, as a useful rule of thumb, it is valuable to think of your introduction as being about one-eighth of the length of the text you are writing. Thus, the introduction to a 100 0word paper would be about 125 words the introduction to a 10,000-word dissertation would contain about 1250 words, and may well appear as a short chapter in its own right. So treat the one-eighth concept as a guideline, not as a straightjacket. Writing the introduction depends heavily on personal preference.Some writers like to know exactly how they will begin before they start to elaborate the text they are aiming to write other writers prefer to know what they have written first, and then write the introduction to fit it, so that it leads to the purpose statement. Yet, a good rule of thumb is to write a draft introduction that leads to your purpose statement, then write the whole text, right to the conclusion, progressively editing as you go along. Only then do you return to your introduction and adjust or rewrite it so that it does indeed fit your paper neatly and satisfyingly.3. 1. 1. The background information The introduction prepares the readers for what follows. Thus, the i ntroduction has an orientation function. Thus, it should therefore present enough background information so that the readers will recognize that the middle of your paper follows logically and coherently from the introduction you need to pay attention to what the reader can be expected to know already and what will be new. Your introduction is more effective when it progresses from the know to the unknown (Figure 5). 15 Guide to Academic Writing Skills.Structuring Prediction markets and their pertinence for organizational decision making 1. Introduction Whether firms are successful or not depends to a great extent on their decisions about new products. Therefore, top management has large Background information (known less known) incentives to have as accurate information as possible on future demand and success of new products. Usual methods of gathering this information include customer surveys and expert opinions. Often, however, these approaches are very inaccurate and misleading .In order to avoid problems linked to the two methods mentioned above, firms came to think about whether or not to make use of prediction markets as information gathering tools (Ho Chen, 2007). New information (topic) Prediction markets, also known as information markets or future events (Wolfers Zitzewitz, 2004), are markets in which price is used as an indicator of the probability that a certain event will occur in the future (Manski, 2006). Market participants buy and sell contracts of the particular event they think will be likely to take place and they contact money when they betted correctly (Wolfers Zitzewitz, 2004).This Purpose of paper paper investigates the question whether or not firms should engage in prediction markets to make informed decisions. Outline Firstly, it explains some general aspects of prediction markets. Secondly, it describes examples of this forecasting tool, focusing for illustration on the Iowa Electronic Market and finally it compares benefits and disadvantages of implementing prediction markets in businesses. Figure 5. Example of an introduction from a first-year business paper. 16 Guide to Academic Writing Skills Structuring 3. 1. 2.The purpose statement The purpose statement is a vital component in academic papers. It marks the high point of the introduction. This statement is a clear expression of the purpose that your paper is expected to assert, explain, support, or defend (Fulwiler Hayakawa, 2000). It summarizes the main idea of a paper and makes that idea explicit to the readers. The statement answers the questions the critical reader has what? Why does this paper exist? What it all about? So s In the literature on academic writing, you will meet the term thesis statement This term cov.ers the statement that the writer is going to argue in his or her paper. stringently speaking, it is relevant to argumentative papers where you are advancing a claim (the thesis), and then in the paper you present the arguments (ev idence) that demonstrates whether the claim holds. An example of an argumentative paper is a position paper in which you set out a particular theoretical position (opinion) based on arguments (evidence). Many papers that you write will not be essentially argumentative papers. You may often simply be explaining a phenomenon or showing and analysing data.Sometimes, you may simply be answering an exploratory question. However, all papers do require a statement or question that neatly summarizes what you are going to do in your paper (see Table 1). Table 1. Types of papers and associated purpose statements*. Type of paper Argumentative paper Purpose as expressed Explanation You argue a proposition (claim). You present the arguments (evidence) for and against the claim, and decide whether the claim is supported or not. You start with a question about a phenomenon, and devise one or more hypotheses that you will test in your research.Your data-based paper reports the results. Example Gove rnment action to restrict the bonuses paid to investment bankers is unwise because it is harmful to the economy as a whole. Are poor people more generous than rich people? Poor people will give a larger office of a monetary gift to poor people than rich people will. Thesis statement Experimental per pa- Research question hypothesis 17 Guide to Academic Writing Skills Structuring Exploratory analysis data Research question You conduct a survey or a series of interviews, for example, but do not have an explicit hypothesis before you start.You have a research question, but do not know in advance what the answers may be. How much do students know about financing small and medium-sized businesses? Or This paper explores the knowledge students have about the financing of This paper reviews recent experimental research into the principal-agent relationship. This paper examines whether the economic grounds for approving the merger were sound. OR Were the economic grounds for approving the merger sound? The European Commission was reassert in fining the lift manufacturers as their cartel had distorted competition and reduced consumer welfare.

Toilet Paper Essay Example for Free

Toilet Paper EssayThe pages of history state that there was an date in which many other alternatives were practised instead of toilet pennings. Examples of such alternatives included leaves, pebbles, and water. In ancient times the tribes used to clear their excreta by means of the remains of a corn or corncobs. They would also sometimes use the skin of the corn.Toilet account is made up of thin roughages of trees. The increasing study of toilet roles is decreasing the amount of trees, which are of a great use. The manufacturers of toilet roles many times chop the trees but as it is said they do non understand the importance and just throw the remaining fiber as if it is not of any use.On fair(a), Bri scores use 17.6 kilograms of toilet cover annually whereas Americans use 15.7 kilograms annually. (Waterfield, 2007) In all, Americans consume 27% of the total wood produced globally. On average, each American uses 75 cubic meters of wood annually. In North America alone , closely half of the coastal temperate rainforests have been wiped out. Almost half of the forests that were originally spread over an area of 48% of the Earths land surface have been lost. Moreover, wholly one-fifth of the Earths original forests remain pristine and undisturbed. (NRDC Forest Facts, 2004)In the United States, 94% of the original forests have already been destroyed. Currently, 307,000 square kilometers of forests are remaining which recognize up around 2% of the total forest remaining worldwide. (Remaining Frontier Forest, n.d.)Toilet Paper manufacturers like Kimberly-Clark say that consumers want non-recycled toilet papers because of their gradualness which is not possible by using recycled material. One million trees would be saved if every U.S. household replaced just one 250-count package of virgin fiber napkins with deoxycytidine monophosphate percent recycled ones. 424,000 trees would be spared by replacing a 500-sheet roll of virgin fiber toilet paper. (Llanos, 2006)(NRDC A Shoppers Guide, 2005)Most manufacturers use pulp because it increases the sissiness of toilet papers. As stated above, many consumers prefer those toilet papers which are soft although the use of recycled toilet papers reduces environmental hazards like global warming by saving trees and forests.Approximately in the USA 5.8 million tons of tissues grades, toilet paper, towels, sanitary products, facial tissues, and diapers are produced yearly. And around 3.5 million tons of scrap paper was used to manufacture aforementioned products. By recycling 1 ton of paper you save 17 trees 6953 gallons of water, 463 gallons of oil, 587 pounds of air pollution, 3.06 cubic yards of landfill space, and 4077 kW hours of energy. (Fun Facts, n.d.)An average roll contains 227 grams weight, which usually include the cardboard core tube and this is just over half of a pound. In paper related manufacturing tale shows that around 28 percent of trees have been cut down in this resp ect. However, more trees are planted every annum instead of chopped down. Fortunately, on an average five trees are planted in place of one chopped down tree. (Fun Facts, n.d.)There are over five hundred paper move are working in the United States. Global production of paper is predictable to expand forty six percent by the year 2040. In this regard, One of the most complete sources for tree-free paper is the Oregon based Fiber Options Paper Company catalog. The owner of the company Karen said that, plants just like kenaf produce four times as much fiber per annum as tress. Hence the plant shorter fiber also forms them more easily recyclable. (Fun Facts, n.d.)Recycled paper is paper that comprises fiber from waste paper. Nevertheless, there is no global agreement on the exact definition of this. According to paper users environmental forum checklist recycled paper should comprise as high proportion of pre consumer fiber waste as possibility proportionate. A pre consumer waste paper is a paper that has been used by the end-user for the indented purpose. Recycling paper is not only gathering wastepaper, but also using paper with recycled substances. Certainly, Toilet paper with high-recycled content is n each expensive nor difficult to acquire.Recycled paper, either pre or post-consumer materials needs to be washed and is often deinked prior to being pulped. The pulp goes through a bleaching process to win it whiter. There are many bleaching processes New Leaf Paper chooses a processed chlorine free process.Once the pulp is bleached, it enters a series of phases including the spare-time activity the paper forming section the press section where water is removed by pressing the wet paper between rolls and felts and the drying section where the moisture content is lessen to the desired level and the calendering section where the paper is compacted and smoothed progressively as it travels down a stack of steel rolls. After completion, the paper is stored in eit her rolls or cut into sheets. (Fun Facts, n.d.)A research conducted by EPA for congress in the early 1970s disclosed the facts that by using one ton of 100 percent recycled paper we can saves 4100 Kwh of energy, which is sufficient for 1 home for six months besides this we can save 7000 gallons of water. The study further revealed that it also keeps more than sixty pounds of pollution out of the fresh air and hence saves 3.3 cubic yard of landfill space, which is increasingly significant as many domestic landfills near capacity. Moreover, representatives of paper industry companies also approximated that 1 ton of recycled paper saves nearly 17 trees. (Fun Facts, n.d.)ReferencesFun Facts (n.d.)http//www.toiletpaperworld.com/tpw/encyclopedia/navigation/funfacts.htmAccessed, June 5, 2007Llanos, Miguel (2006, April 21) Ready to rethink toilet paper for Earth solar day?http//www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12318915/ Accessed, June 5, 2007NRDC A Shoppers Guide to Home Tissue Products (2005, Oct 2 6)http//www.nrdc.org/land/forests/gtissue.asp Accessed, June 5, 2007NRDC Forest Facts (2004, Aug 27)http//www.nrdc.org/land/forests/fforestf.asp Accessed, June 5, 2007Remaining Frontier Forest (n.d.)http//www.endgame.org/gtt-deforestation.html Accessed, June 5, 2007Waterfield, Bruno 05/02/2007Britons lead the way in toilet paper usehttp//www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/02/05/wrolls05.xmlAccessed, June 5, 2007

Construction Techniques for Bridges

Construction Techniques for BridgesStructure of reportAn extensive part of this report was dedicated to the literature review. Though actu each(prenominal)y the most evoke part is the one which concerns to the results of the vulnerability of twain of the case story, it is not permissible to neglect all the general considerations found on an extensively rese pie-eyed in technical text, through which was attainable to determine the item bodily structure, the method and the phases of construction, the persona of abridgment to be carried taboo and in which way the results nourish to be read. t hence close attention is needed in interpreting the results overdue to limitations of the specific case downstairs consideration and at the same time because of the need to extrapolate the specific results for use on a larger scale of projects.In the literature review prick of the report a general study intimately distich over has been developed. This has been done investigating the history, the evolution, as well as the technologies and vogues of bridge frame, with particular attention to recent developments in California. Construction techniques have also been examine in more details referring to many important projects, based on international literature, scientific journals and technical books.Then the earthquake section was covered.In the section about Codes of practice an overview of the most important aspects has been made and few tables of interested have been attached to justify the choices made in the case study.Type of analysis of previous papersThe second part, elaborated with the support of the softw atomic number 18 SAP2000 BRIDGE Modeler, follows the development of the project of a common bridge in California check to the local and flowings codes of practice.Literature reviewAn extensive literature review was conducted to understand which is the state of the research and the interest of the codes in assured carrying into action behavi or of the bridges during phases of construction.BridgesAmong all the engineering sciences, bridge engineering is one of the most complex because involves in itself a gang of disciplines, from technical to aesthetic, from environmental to social, from economic to governmental aspects. Without any doubt the technical and the economic factors atomic number 18 those that strongly influence engineers choices in radiation patterning a bridge, but they do not cover all the design process. Using Troitsky words Planning and designing bridges is part art and part compromise (Chen, Lian Duan, 1999).For understanding recent trends in bridge design and construction it is of soaring importance to consider the development that bridge engineering has undergone during centuries. History illustrates that social and economical changes in a nation have been reflected on bridge engineering development. At antithetical historical moments, various types of bridges have been built for many purposes w ith the saucy technologies at each time. From the 19th century, due to the big industrial growth, bridges have been built essentially as part of the transportation organization. During the 20th century, bridge engineering has been characterized by big changes in the structural resolves and methods of constructions because of the diffusion of the strengthened concrete. The designers had finally a large possibility of choices surrounded by materials, methods of constructions and technologies of analysis. This led to the actual scenario where multiple type of bridges are in operation spiritedlighting the wide creativity of bridge engineers.Designing a bridge, the main important parameters to take in account in choosing the best solution are location, span, material, type of foundation, scheme of the bridge, type of superstructure, type of supports, method of construction. Regarding materials, nowdays timber is used only for temporary bridges, then for ordinary bridges the choice is between reinforced concrete and steel. Depending on the span of the structure one material is to be preferred to the other. For spans between 65ft and 330ft reinforced concrete gives the best compromise, for spans greater than 330 ft steel is recommended. The span influences also the system of the bridge for small and medium spans a beam bridge is commonly used, for spans longer than 160 ft an arch system could be adviced and a hang bridge scum bag be the solution for very long span bridges. These are only indication, and every mavin case has to be evalued considering limitations due to location, codes, cost and typical bridge of the area. It is a vertical rule of practice to consider typical projects recent designed in the area in which there is the purpose of insert a saucy bridge structure, if the medium-span is the one of interest. (Chen, Lian Duan, 1999). morphologic TypesThis paragraph intends to provide a list of the several(prenominal) commonly used types of bridges, highlighting the differences for geometry, analysis, economy. This list is not to be intended complete, as other type of bridges may be design, in which case, specific deep studies have to be done in order to analyse the particular solution.According to Raina it is possible to categorize bridges in six different types of superstructure regarding the material which is made of.Materials commonly used for building the superstructure of permanent bridges areReinforced ConcretePrestressed ConcreteMasonrySteelMix of steel and reinforced concrete or mix of reinforced concrete and prestressed concreteSpecial superstructures with cablesFor each material there are possibilities of different agreeables of sections.1. Reinforced Concrete Superstructures can be simple-minded span or continuous span balanced stick out, arch or frame, tipically utilized for short span bridges. Some parts may be precast.Solid Slab Used for spans between 5 and 14 metersSlab and girder (T-beam bridges) Used fo r spans between 14 and 25 meters holler box girder Used for spans between 25 and 70 meters Characterized by a high torsional resistance, is suitable for curved paths.2. Prestressed Concrete Superstructures can be simple, balanced or free cantilever, or continuous span. It is possible to have segmental cast in situ or precast solutions. Prestressed Concrete superstructures cover medium spans.Hollow slab Used for spans between 10 and 25 metersSlab and girder (Girder bridges)Hollow box girder3. Masonry superstructures have been associated with arch bridges in the past centuries.This type of bridges is not of relevant importance for this study, which is relative to new bridges under construction.4. Steel Superstructure typically consists in a steel truss deck and covers long spans.5. Composite superstructures can have the following deck typesLongitudinal surface girder and thwartwise beam girder with concrete slabLongitudinal and transverse beam girder with concrete slabLongitudina l box girder with concrete slabThe deck arrangement can be simple span or continuous span, or arch and covers medium and long spans.5. Special superstructureCable stayed bridgesSuspended bridgesThese structures are of relatively new conception and in last century have been used for long span solutions.(V.K.Raina, 1994).New trendsAccording to Caltrans informations, in California the majority of bridges have been built with the cast-in-place (CIP) technique (See also fig.x?). This method of construction provides a vertical compromise between bridge cost and seismic performance of the structure. Commonly CIP system requires big effort in design and preparation at the site often needs framework to support and long time for casting and finishing. An ever-increase requests of new way of transportation has been registered due to the rapid growth of population and the high economic standards, added to the aging of infrastructures and the introduction of new seismic design criteria. The tra nsportation planners are searching for new solutions that can accelerate highway and bridge construction in alternative to the traditional ones. Caltrans engineers are looking at precasting to try to strive the Accelerating Bridge Construction (ABC) they are developing research and studies to understand the effectiveness of precast solutions in reducing construction time on site and delays in the decongestion of traffic. In the beginning, Caltrans was concerned about the behavior of the precast structures in high seismic zones, because there was not a long tradition in the earthquake prone areas. Precasting has been usually considered having too many points of connection which are bleachednesses for seismic performance capabilities. The University of California-San Diego conducted tests on the seismic behavior of precast segmental bridge and the results showed that this kind of method gives desirable performances also for high seismic zones. (Aspire, Spring 2007) In the last 3 yea rs few projects have been completed successfully in California with prefabricated elements, and even if they costed 30% more than it they were built with traditional CIP method, the reduced time-on-site guarantees a overall gain.Economic analysis and Quantity trendsIn the figure higher up is graphically shown the trend of the Bridge Construction Cost Index in California over the last 45 years. It is evident how the index cost has been increasing over the decades, although sometimes decrements have been registered. This is possibly due to effects of regressions in the economy of the State or due to improvements in various technical aspects of construction and therefore in the adoption of new, cheaper and better designed solutions.It is very difficult to forecast the cost of bridge engineering works, as they are related to a lot of uncertainty parameters like economic situation, inflation, local environment. By the way an effort in this sense has been done to have some costs ofSeism ic CodesWHICH seismal CODEAASHTO Standards Specifications give provisions of minimum requirements for conventional bridges with span not exceeding 300ft. There are some general indications about cable-stayed bridges, suspended bridges, arch bridges but these are not fully covered.The fundamental principles on which the Standards are based on are the following pointsStructural performance should be ensured without significant damage (elastic range) under small and moderate earthquakesDesign has to be carried out applying realistic ground motion accelerationsLarge earthquake should not cause collapseThe Codes are valid for all United States and the seismic risk varies a lot through the Country. Reading the acceleration contours on the take a chance map (fig.20?) the acceleration coefficient A, relative to the place of interest, is determined dividing by 100 the value read the map is based on a return period of 475 years for events with 10% probability of exceedence in 50 years. Four Seismic Performance Categories (SPC) from A to D (AASHTO SDC) or from 1 to 4 (AASHTO LRFD) are delineate (fig.20?) on the base of the Acceleration Coefficient (A) and two Importance Classification (IC) parameters categorize every bridge as Essential (I) or Critical (II) regarding its importance (fig. 22?). To take into account the defect conditions a Site Coefficient (S) has to be used in the design process for all type of foundation for approximates the effect of the soil modification on the structural behavior (fig.22?). S coefficient varies from 1 to 2 for soils from rock to soft clays or silts. For those cases in which is not possible to determine the photo of the site, a soil Type II with S=1.2 should be assigned. With this specifications the elastic seismic response coefficient Csm has to be calculate for the Tm period of vibration of the structure that corresponds to the mth mode. Csm is defined by the Code (3.10.6.1 AASHTO LRFD) as a function of A, S and Tm. Seismic desi gn forces for substructure and connections have to be determined dividing the elastic forces by the appropriate Response Modification Factor given for each Importance Category of bridge. To consider the variability of the directions in which the earthquake may occur, two combinations of saucy seismic forces have to be apply to the superstructure of the bridge with the proportion of 100% and 30% in each direction. The Code (AASHTO LRFD) defines a vertical support as a column if the ratio of the clear high to the maximum dimension of the cross section is not less than 2.5. If the ratio is less than 2.5, the requirements for piers have to be satisfied. A pier can be analysed as a pier in its strong direction and as a column in the weak one.Analysis MethodThe objective of seismic design is to define forces which structures are subject to, calculate elastic and inelastic deformations, study the ductile behavior of the structure and verify the ability of the single elements to resist. D ifferent methods of analysis were found in the literature review with different assumptions and for different scopes. Briefly it forget be given a list of the methods covered by the codes.Analytical MethodsESA combining weight Static AnalysisEDA fictile Dynamic AnalysisISA Inelastic Static AnalysisStructural System Global AnalysisStand-Alone Local AnalysisTransverse Stand-Alone AnalysisLongitudinal Stand-Alone analysisSimplified AnalysisESA Equivalent Static Analysis can be used to estimate the displacement demands of those structure with uniform stiffness, responding by the predominant mode of vibration, where dynamic analysis would not give significantly different results. (Cetinkaya, Nakamura,Takahashi,2005)EDA Elastic Dynamic Analysis can be used to estimate the displacement demands of those structures where ESA does not give a good response of the dynamic behavior. The effect of applying design spectral acceleration likely results in stresses exceeding the li progress range. This is due to the contribution of the soil, yielding in the structural elements, expansion of the joints.According to recent Caltrans specifications (Caltrans SDC (v.1.5)) an Ordinary Bridge can be analyzed either with Equivalent Static Method or Linear Elastic Dynamic Method for estimating the displacement demands. For establish the displacement capacity of the elements a nonlinear analysis is required to take into account the ductility of the structure.Pushover analysisCase studyThe case study has been chosen after evaluating the trends in bridge construction in California in the last ten years. The trend shows that the majority of bridges designed in recent past are of medium span, built with the cast in place technique. A very high percentage of these are prestressed box girder built by segments with the balanced cantilever erection method. Since the interest of this study is aimed at predicting the likely behavior of the bridges that will be probably built in the next future in California, the choice was made in that direction. PrecastNEW TRENDSThe main objective of this study is to study the vulnerability of the bridge under the seismic effect if the earthquake is going to occur during the construction phases. Before doing this, however, is fundamental to be sure that the bridge (case of study), after work completion and during life time under live heaps, will respond satisfying all safety criteria required by the current local codes.We are talking about small earthquakes if the performance behavior of the structure has to stay in the elastic range, because this is a principle that governs the bridge design according to the codes of practice.Structural SystemThe solution adopted consists in a prestressed cast on site concrete box girder constructed with the segmental balanced cantilever method, with a mixed system of prestressing cables in post-tension.Stages of ConstructionOne of the most significant aspect of the bridge under consideration, that affects the all the design phases, is the definition of the bridge behavior during construction in the sequential progression of structural configurations. Therefore, issues relating to structural analysis during construction and those due to the actions in the final phase, have been examined in depth. borderThe modeling has been conductedThe capacity demand of vertical supports is a complex function of a lot of variables includingGround motion characteristicRequired design trainPeriod of vibration of the structureMaterial behaviorElastic damping coefficientSoil condition and foundation typeThe geology of the ground and the morphology of the site play a key role in the design stage and govern the choices to be made in terms of foundations, maximum span length and construction type.A subsurface investigation in the vicinity of piles and abutments is necessary to identify a suitable foundation type. The economic aspect is also affected because, depending on the geological situat ion, in case of high risk of liquefaction or slope stability the cost of foundations can vary greatly and reach very high costs in proportion to the total cost of the structure. In the case study taken into consideration, there was no possibility to determine the required type of the foundations due to the lack in knowledge of the geology of the soil.The feasible foundation options that could be proposed are many and, depending on the particular one chosen, they could significantly change the demeanour of the structure under seismic load. It was therefore preferred to leave the type of foundations as undefined and study the behaviour of the superstructure (piers and abutments) by assigning a good degree of restraint at the base of the substructure. Basically in the analysis model the base of the substructure has been fully restrained neglecting the possibility of deformation. This decision is based on the assumption that a fully fixed restraint (as the one simulated/assigned in th e analysis model) will never occur in reality, regardless the type of foundation chosen this bureau that the reactions at the base obtained from the model will be higher than the ones expected in reality, guarantying a conservative approach of the study. On the other hand the scope of this study is not the full design of the bridge, but the variation of the seismic vulnerability during the construction process, hence the previous assumptions, constant during the study of all construction stages, do not affect the final results. This means that making sure that the limitations deriving from these assumptions are taken into consideration, it has been possible to interpret the results appropriately as described in the following paragraphs.Analysis procedureThe project of the bridge should be feasible in the near future at the location indicated and therefore the completed structure has to be able to withstand to all the loads defined by the codes, including seismic loads. Therefore, t he maiden phase of this study involved the design of the bridge sections by analyzing bending, shear and torsion in superstructure and substructure.Usually, while conducting a push-over analysis, the structure is pushed till collapse is reached. This means that the structure would be allowed to pass the linear state and undergo to the non-linear one with the progressive formation of plastic hinges. Plastic hinges are a exemplification of cinch and initial damages in the structure. Wherever they occur, is not admissible to have cracks in the structure during construction of the bridge. For this reason the capacity of the piers to resist to seismic loads during construction has been evaluated through linear cinch analysis. Therefore the structure behavior has always been considered linear and when plastic hinges started occurring, which means that the structure was dissipating energy while cracking, the pushover has been stopped because the piers were considered damaged.Since the s tructure was reproduced with a 3-dimensional model, two different pushover analysis were carried on one in the longitudinal direction and one in the transverse direction. The two chosen directions correspond to the first and the second mode of vibration of the bridge. Longitudinal pushover analysis was performed applying a slowly increasing seismic load on the superstructure of the bridge in the same direction of the span, and transverse pushover analysis similarly in the perpendicular direction.Summary and ConclusionThe discussion in this study was carried out looking at a single bridge and making some simplifications (assumptions of fixity supports, two orthogonal directions of seismic forces, no admissible damage, linear behavior) to limit the number of variables that could affect the analysis. The previous push-over results refer to different models for the different construction phases of the same bridge. It would be hazardous coming to the conclusion that these results are rep resentative of all bridge behaviors. Surely this study can be considered a good starting point for further investigation to be carried out on bridges with different characteristics for compare and group them in classes with analogue behavior to reach a generals conclusions about seismic vulnerability during construction.

Aged Care Service Delivery Health And Social Care Essay

Aged Care Service Delivery Health And Social Care EssayThe senescence of mess is a vernacular issue approach most countries and regions in the world, which brings slap-up pressure on ordination and family, as well as new challenges to the aging administer divine dish up delivery (Hughes, 2004). For example, older spate are more presumable to abide chronic diseases due to the function decline such as cardiovascular cerebrovascular diseases, Parkinsons disease, arthritis, and diabetes mellitus and others, or accident trauma such as injures by falling. As a result, there are mental/psychological issues facing those older heap, and the sustenance needs are even more complicated than those for the younger adults (Fleming and FitzGerald, 2009). Moreover, this go out increase the wellness heraldic bearing needs of the immemorial tribe with a core group which has been increased on the termd conduct system. With the increasing aging population, there are more number of older people in the need of vulcanized conduct armed service delivery. However, the ripened business service delivery is under the influences of versatile factors in the residential district or society, facing opposite good-hearteds of issues. As in this paper, it will then focus on how the wellness care needs of older people are being addressed today and to the future. To be specific, it will firstly figure out the current status of recovered care service delivery, particularly involving the problems existed secondly, the paper will then critically analyse the sparing, social, pagan and political issues associated with senile care service delivery afterwards, in response to the indicated issues and problems as well as the impacts, the future directions for the flavor care of older people will be discussed. At last, it will be the conclusion summarizing the main points of the paper.2.0 Current Status of Aged Care Service Delivery in AustraliaAs indicated, with the inc reasing proportion of older people, the aging of population has already grown into a huge social issue, bringing increasing impression on the wellness care system of Australia.2.1 Growth of an Aging Society in AustraliaDuring the recent decades in the 20th and 21st century, there have been significant changes in gracious society, in particular the population demographics. Specifically, due to the increased higher rank and low fertility rates, migration and technological advances, the fourth-year(a) population accounts for increasing proportion during the period. Concerning the Australian population, the age group of people over 65 years old has grown from 8% in 1980-1981 to 13% in 2005-2006, this figure is projected to increase to 26%-28% in 2051, and 27%-31% in 2101. Particularly, when the aging population over 60 years old accounts for more than 10% of the total population or the aging population over 65 years old is more than 7% of the total population in a society, it will be the aging of population in the society. This is naturally bringing great pressure on many aspects of the social life, especially the health care field and the economic aspect (Australian Government, 2004).The health condition of antique people is fragile, comparing to more energetic younger adults. Because of the body function decline, there is high morbidity rate in the aged population, and the common diseases include cardiovascular, cerebrovascular diseases, Parkinsons disease, arthritis, and diabetes mellitus and other chronic diseases, or accident trauma such as injures by falling. Furthermore, these diseases are often companied by some(prenominal) mental issues and psychological problems like depression and mental disorders (Fleming and FitzGerald, 2009). In this case, the aged populations are more likely to demand for health care work, with increasing result on the health care system.Older people are the major service object of home care. The main demands of older peop le are avail in the activities of daily living. This care for the aged people is mainly offered by several types of providers such as the spouse, the children, the nurse module, community service and other service organizations (Ergas, 2009). The care modes are overly different because of different cultures and traditions in different countries and regions. For example, Australia health organizations provide high quality community services to ageing or else than some Asia countries home care modes. In addition, economic and financial constraints and other factors also have influences on aged care. For example, high payment will change the aged people to receive more advanced care, while lack of access to effective health care will hinder the aged people to receive prompt care services.2.2 Care Insurance System for Aged Care in AustraliaThere are two types of aged care restitution system, which are restitution of social security and commercial insurance (Jacobs and Goddard, 2 002). Concerning the social insurance enforced by the political science, there are various sources of the funds, which include the insurance premium paid by the insured, and the subsidies provided by the political relations. Regarding the commercial insurance, it has been developed due to the increasing health needs of the aged people (Theobald, 2003). Whether to participate in this kind of commercial insurance is totally depending on the insurance applicants, which is a flexible type of care insurance for the aged people.As in Australia, national health care system has been adopted, which means that every individual has the right to enjoy appropriate health care insurance, including the aged care provided for the aged people. In this case, the aged people can receive care insurance for the health care services equally in Australia, due to the national system supported by the government. However, with the increasing financial burden on the health care system, commercial insurance h as also been largely used, as the government has encouraged the citizens to buy different kinds of commercial insurance packages so as to share the burden. Specifically, the government will provide subsidy for people who barter for commercial insurance the earlier they purchase it, the more subside they can get. From this perspective, the aged care services in Australia are paid by both the country and the service users. (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007)2.3 breathing Problems Facing Aged Care in AustraliaAs stated, the aging of population has been a great issue facing the Australian society, with increasing burden on health care system. Specifically, due to this great pressure and burden, there exist various problems facing the aged care service delivery in Australia.2.3.1 increase Health Care Needs and Growing Care Difficulty due(p) to the increasing possibility of morbidity of the aged people, the hospitalization rate has been growing, with more demands on the care service delivery, in addition to increasing costs. Comparing to the younger adult patients, the health care for the aged people is much more complicated, touch in the entire regale of are evaluation, care plan, and care delivery, because the aged patients are often suffering from more than one disease. Furthermore, hospitalization itself also has great threat to the health condition and body function of the aged patients. According to the studies by Creditor (1993) and Riedinger and Robbins (1998), about one third of the aged people experiencing hospitalization have then experienced a decline in one or several abilities in the activities of daily living, while over 15% of the in-hospital aged patients whitethorn suffer from adverse drug reaction. Other problems like lacking of beds, overabundant emergency cases, noisy environs and lacking of space for medical facilities have also increased the risks for the aged patients like patient falls (Courtney, OReilly, Edwards and Hassall, 2007). In addition, there also exists information obstacle in the care service delivery, for example, the nursing staff may not be able to obtain first hand information of the patients from relevant staff or organizations, which can greatly affect the quality of care for the aged patients, and also make the care service process even more complicated (Leventhal, 2008).2.3.2 lacking of Aged Care WorkforceLacking of nursing staff is one of the severe challenges facing the aged care service delivery (Stubbings and Scott, 2004). Specifically, the shortage of nurses involve two aspects one is the reduction of nursing staff including registered nurses, non-registered nurses and other hospital workers the other is the ageing of nursing staff. There are various reasons contributing to this situation, such as the increasing complexity of aged care, the decreasing enrollment of nurses, as well as the reducing satisfaction of the nurses on their occupation, and the increasing job choices for women w orkers (Newman and Maylor, 2002). Moreover, the low wages and bad working environment also lead to the decline in nurse enrollment. This shortage of nursing staff, particularly the professional nursing staff whom with abundant skills and experiences in caring the aged people has then been a great problem for the aged care service deliver.2.3.3 Insufficient Aged Care Education and TrainingDue to the traditional views on the nursing occupation, education and training are relatively limited, such as the knowledge on aged care. Thus, there is also lacking of aged care education organizations and qualified senior nurses with sufficient knowledge and skills related to aged care. Further, sufficient education and training on aged care is likely to cause communication misunderstanding between the nurses and the aged patients, so as to negatively affect the quality of care. Particularly, in a study conducted by Jacelon (2002) in the acute care setting, the aged patients go out drug administ ration and provision of direct care needs as the major responsibility of the nurses while the nurses themselves regard health education and emotional support as their responsibility. This disparity of attitudes toward nursing responsibility will then cause problems during the aged care service delivery process.3.0 Issues Associated with Aged Care Service DeliveryIn the above sections, the current status of aged care in Australia has been presented, including the general situation of ageing population, and the health care demands of the aged people, as well as the care insurance system to aged care in the country, and the existing problems facing the Australian aged care. From this perspective, it can be indicated that aged care service delivery is a complicated process involving many aspects and issues. More specifically, there are economic, social, cultural and political issues associated with aged care service delivery.3.1 Economic IssuesEconomic issues are the primary influencin g factor that has potential impacts on the aged care service delivery. Since the total population of aged people is increasing, it has been difficult for the government or society to afford the aged health care services for this increasing aged population (Access Economics, 2003 productiveness Commission, 2005). Economic status will to a great extent influence the aged care service delivery in a country. To be specific, if Australia is experiencing an economic downturn for a period, then its gossip into the health care service including the aged care service will be negatively impacted. Furthermore, the increasing burden on health care expenditure due to the increasing cost on aged care is a great economic issue facing the aged care service delivery in Australia.3.2 Social IssuesThe aged population as part of the total population in a society or community is a social issue itself, and the whole society is closely associated with the aged population since they are the elderly family members of other population in the society or community (Beadnell, 2006). Due to this, there are then social issues associated with the aged care service delivery in Australia. First, family members like children and other relatives are also a type of care providers for the aged people however, in a highly developed country like Australia, the Australian people are often in addition busy working or with other pressure in their lives, so that they cannot take effective care of the aged people. Second, community care is a common type of care delivered to the aged people, which can also lead to social issue for the aged care. For example, how nursing home or communities for the elderly can be effectively established and managed is a great social issue for facilitating effective aged care service delivery.3.3 Cultural IssuesDue to the diversified cultures existed in the world, there are different attitudes toward the aged population. For example, in some cultures, the aged people are regarded as burden on the economic development and the society while in other cultures, the aged people are highly respected. Determined by these different attitudes, the aged care service delivery in different cultures can also be differing from each other. Moreover, the ways to caring the aged people are also differing in cultures. To be specific, in the eastern cultures, the aged people tend to be cared by their families, and it is considered cruel if the aged people are sent to nursing homes since their families like their children do not take care of them. However, in the western developed countries, it is common that the aged people are being cared in nursing homes or evaluate community services as these aged people are more independent. Australia is a multicultural country, due to the migration of people from many other countries and regions with different cultural backgrounds. This cultural diversity determines that the aged care service delivery is also varying in these di fferent cultural communities. From this perspective, how to offer effective aged care service in such cultural diversely communities becomes an important issue for the Australian people.3.4 Political IssuesPolitical issues mainly refer to the policies and strategies adopted by the Australian government, concerning the health care service provision, which includes the aged care. In particular, the major political issue associated with the aged care in Australia is the issue of health care insurance. As it is know, Australia has adopted a national health care system the Medicare, aiming to provide health care service to all Australian citizens equally. However, health care is too expensive for individuals and even the government to afford. In this situation, the increasing health care costs has been a burden on the governments health care expenditure, so the government has turned to other ways to facilitate the health care including the care for the aged people.4.0 Future Directions f or the Quality Care of Aged PeopleBased on the above problems and issues indicated, associated with the aged care service delivery, there are several implications for facilitating quality care of aged people in Australia in the future.First, the governments effort and input should be enhanced, paying sufficient attention to the health care needs of the aged people, because it accounts for a large proportion in the national population. From this perspective, the federal government and state governments in Australia should develop more effective policies and strategies for the aged care.Second, the workforce for the aged care should be another focus for improving quality care of aged people in the future. From this perspective, the working condition for the care providers especially the nursing staff should be improved, so as to attract the nurses to work in this field in addition, more effective education and training concerning the knowledge and skills of aged care should be develop ed for the nursing staff and other care providers.Third, community care services should be put an emphasis since it can lead to more prompt services for the aged population. Generally, not all aged people are committed to hospitals for caring, and a larger proportion of aged people are lacking of abilities in activities of daily living, which require for relevant financial aid rather than hospital services. Thus, community services should be promoted for better aged care service delivery.5.0 ConclusionThis paper has focused on the heath care for the aged people and how their care needs are being addressed today and to the future. The current status has been particularly presented. Due to various reasons including increased longevity and low fertility rates, migration and technological advances and others, the aging of population has been a growing trend in Australia. Determined by the function decline, the increasing health care demands that can make a burden on the health care sys tem of Australia. Moreover, it is indicated that the care insurance system in Australia, determined by its betrothal of national health care system, as well as the support for the commercial insurance to share the financial burden. However, there are also various issues facing the aged care system in Australia, which mainly refer to the increasing health care needs and care difficulty and complexity, the shortage of care providers or nursing staff, and the insufficient aged care education and training. Furthermore, due to the many different aspects and issues involved in aged care, it has presented a complicated process of aged care service deliver. In particular, there are economic, social, cultural and political issues that may be associated with aged care service delivery in Australia. These different issues determined by economic, social, cultural and political factors can generate great impacts on the process of aged care service delivery. Based on this, the future directions for the quality care of aged people have also been discussed to focus on the governments efforts the development of effective workforce and the community care services for aged people.

Understanding The Theory Acts Of Social Work Social Work Essay

Understanding The Theory Acts Of Social Work Social Work EssayChildren and little people vary enormously in their responses to the same roll in the hays and those who suffer ruin either develop coping strategies to get through it and emerge relatively unscathed whilst others do non, in other rowing they sink or swim. This essay puts forward bodies of research and theories of resilience that influence thinking in tender mildew and look at the way in which those theories aver contemporary societal work to promote resilience in chelaren and tender people. It will also examine some of the ways in which issues renegade which could hinder these approaches.Frost and Hoggett (2008) say the psychological and the fond elements of the childs world cannot be understood as two parallel paradigms that influence and impact development. Holloway and Jefferson elaborate cited in Frost and Hoggett (2008),Subjects whose inner worlds cannot be understood without knowledge of their experienc es in the world, and whose experiences of the world cannot be understood without knowledge of the way in which their inner worlds kick them to experience the outer world.It is evident that it is through a childs psycho- neighborly experience that they learn to make sense of the world and their place within it. Rutter (1999) informs us that for a child to be determined resilient they must have encountered an experience with the risk of infection of psychopathology for use those who have been living with domestic violence.There is no one universally accepted translation of resilience notwithstanding Masten et al (1990) define resilience in generalised terms, as the process of, capacity for, or outcome of happy adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances. However an International Resilience Project, set up to study how different cultures and countries promoted resilience, adopted the following definition of resilienceResilience is a universal capacity which allows a person, group or community to pr raset, minimize or everywherecome the damaging effects of adversity (Grotberg 1997, p 19).Masten and Coatsworth (1998) identified the characteristics of resilient children as good intellectual functioning, appealing, sociable, easygoing disposition, self efficacy, self- confidence, high self-esteem, talent and faith with a close relationship to a caring p bent figure and extended family network support and socio-economically advantaged. These definitions provide utilizable starting points for the purposes of this essay.Contemporary society has been described by Beck(1992) as a risk society and early research concentrated on how children and newborn people responded to risk and became casualties of adversity. Ferguson (1997) points out that following the work of Foucault and the concept of governmentality post modernist critics make out that the traditional role of tender work has suffered from family case workers seeking out and working with dangerous families and children at high risk. A study of children at risk was undertaken by Garmezy and Rutter (1983). The study of 200 children from USA appears to conclude that despite the high risk environments in which they grew up some children appear to have self righting tendencies which allow them to develop into well adjusted young adults. It would seem that everyone has the capacity to be resilient at some times and in some circumstances depending on their mental state and level and duration of the vehemence in the given event.In order to recognise resilience it is important to understand the factors that lead children and young people to succumb to adversity and to realise that resilience and vulnerability are at opposite ends of a continuum reflecting susceptibility to adverse consequences (Anthony 1987). The response to adversity and adjudicate can be affected by one or more variables from psychological and/or friendly aspects.Freud (1910) developed a psychoanalytic al theory in which the unconscious is seen as a central concept on which all other aspects of mental functioning are based. The focus of his research was mainly on the individuals personality. Social workers have to be aware that unconscious processes whitethorn conceal or distort memories or even produce responses disproportionate to the situation, heavy(a) hints of profound issues.Erikson (1959) differs from Freud in that he described eight stages of psychosocial development. In these stages he suggests that we encounter expectable c commencements which create conflict within ourselves and with significant others in everyday life. personality and behaviour are influenced by the way in which these crises are dealt with. The people who manage to move through Freud and Eriksons stages of development are more likely to drive resilient people.John Bowlby(1969) was a psychologist, doctor and psychoanalyst ,who specialised in working with children. He believed that alliance behaviou r is a biologically originated response to worry and stress stimulated by physical involve such as pain or hunger, separation from or rejection by the primary caregiver or external threats such as a loud noise. He believed this response arises from the infants desire to seek security and protection through proximity to a caregiver. Aldgate(2007) surmises that an attachment relationship is go bad of a wider affectional relationship that one person sees the other as stronger and wiser and someone to turn to when he or she is afraid. Through feature nature and nurture individuals begin to establish relationships and understand and begin to manage emotions. By devising sense of the caregivers both psychologically and socially, (if they respond in times of need) the infant begins to see them as a dependable and reliable. Such mental models help individuals organise their expectations about other peoples availability and responsiveness (Howe 1996). When the caregiver does not respond in the way the infant expects they experience anxiety and this can lead to insecure attachments. Bowlbys work was later built on by Ainsworth et al (1978) who through the Strange Situation study revealed profound effects of attachment on behaviour and went on to describe patterns of attachment (secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganised added later on). Trevithick (2009) confirms that over the years the work of Bowlby and others has been important within social work making links amongst childrens behaviour and the quality of their relationships with their parent(s) and other attachment figures. Furthermore Howe (2009) confirms that attachment theory is also playing a major role in the resurgence of relationship based social work. It is therefore of great relevance to social workers to know how parenting styles,culture, family life and the social environments have affected the childs psychosocial development.The notion of a secure base is of vital importance for children and yo ung people. In a useful analogy Gilligan (2001) uses a tree putting down roots to elaborate on the idea of a secure base. It is through continuity, quality and consistency of relationships that a child whitethorn find their secure base. Relatives, friendship groups, a teacher or even a social worker may provide a secure base in an otherwise complex and chaotic world. If the child is looked after (a child who enters the care system either informally or legally) they may need to learn to develop brand-new relationships and have the opportunity to develop a secure base.It is not always psychological processes that shape resilience, sometimes a token episode or situation may occur that may be problematic and have far reaching consequences. Giddens (1991) described these episodes as blackened moments, saying that these are times when events come together in such a way that an individual stands, as it were, at a crossroads in his existence or where a person learns of information with inglorious consequences. A fateful moment will have implications for the individual which may threaten their ontological security. Fateful moments however do not always result in adversity they can signal a change for the better, a potentially empowering experience, however it is the risk that things may go awry that poses the challenge. Within this context it is important that social workers assess the extent to which they make sense of society and peoples experience.Similar to fateful moments, life events, ongoing adversities, personal stress, interpersonal problems or familial situations, can affect levels of stress or anxiety. Rutter (2000) used the congresswoman of a divorce in the family as a staged process of a life event, rather than a one off event. The divorce may be preceded by a long period of unhappiness, followed by the divorce itself and the uncertainties that accompany it such as the knowledge and burden of financial worries, possible loss of a parent, introduction of new family members, housing worries etc. Social workers working with Giddensian ideas, (that multiple choices are available to all through abstract systems) are able to help vulnerable children and young people who are on a developmental pathway to make positive choices about the direction their lives will take in their life planning. However, those who bump Giddens say that he is too optimistic in his view of the positive capacity of individuals to understand their lives and always know why they act as they do (Ferguson 2009). There are families who work with social workers who may not have the ability to analyse their lives in this way, and social workers should be mindful of this in their work with people.The negative impacts of poverty, lack of social and cultural capital and impact of marital discord can cause children, young people and families to be characterised as at risk according to Hoffman (2010). Poverty can have serious and possibly grave consequences for families. Nonetheless, it is important to recognise that not all poor families, or even most poor families experience these deleterious outcomes. Many impoverished families beat the odds and have stable, loving relationships ( Seccombe, 2002)Skeggs (2001) in her study with young women revealed that they were continually making comparisons between themselves and others and were sure of what they did not want to be but were less sure of what they wanted to be, thus illustrating how the constraints of class and gender are some of the structures that mortify who we can be and how we can behave. However this does not appear to mean that structures should be accepted per se but by accepting their existence and realising that they are given meaning through human action and interaction it is possible to work with dish users and their families. Frost (2003) illustrates the harsh reality for young people stating that the morphologic inequalities of class and poverty connect into the emotionally quite brutal lived realities of young people themselves- the power of the pecking order, popularity or unpopularity, and in-group membership or exclusion- via the conspicuous display of pricey consumer goods.For some young people, the friendship groups they form, sub-cultures they belong to, the styles they wear dictates the way in which they present themselves and gain a sense of who they are in society. Being part of the group increases self esteem and resilience, conversely being different in some way may attract adverse reaction and stigmatisation for example a disabled child may be affected by the negative perceptions of being different.According to Howe (2009) social workers in the late 1980s began to purport that the service users with whom they were working were the victims of their own biographical narratives, or their place within the social structure. Service users became service users because they had problems, pathologies or weaknesses and that this defined them in some wa y. The social worker viewed them as a case which then depersonalised them. By introducing a method of assessment whereby they could look at the strengths of people rather than their pathology and problems it was possible for social workers to recognise the resilience and resourcefulness possessed by many people living in adversity. By being interested in and listening to the service user the social worker could begin to uncover where someones strengths lie. Saleebey (2002) identified some types of questions that can lead to the discovery of strengths survival questions, exception questions, possibility questions and esteem questions. It may be difficult to tease out strengths however as many people have had years of self doubt or blame from others to compact around with them however it is on these positive elements however slim the potential for progress lies.It is crucial to the safety of children and young people that social workers can order risks in a childs environment and re move or reduce such a risk. This may ultimately mean removing the risk from the child or removing the child from the risk which could, depending on the level of risk, involve the child becoming a looked after child. In this case the social worker can work with the child to prevent social isolation by maintaining or re-introducing contact with family members, if appropriate. The social worker should also ensure that a child is able to attach the arrange meaning to an outcome, if for example, a looked after child has to move to a new placement the social worker must explain in clear run-in what has happened and why. Schofield and Beck (2005) studied risk and resilience in children in long term foster care and concluded that specific changes or single events in a childs life such as a new attachment relationship, a change of school, a change of contact arrangements or the discovery of a childs particular talent do have the potential to alter the direction significantly for better or worse.Howe et al (1999) state that good quality care giving is the most potent form of self enhancement of children confirming that it is a positive building block on which resilience to build resilience. Therefore the social worker needs to ensure that a childs caregivers are able to provide a secure attachment through their relationships to ensure that self esteem is promoted. every relationship break-down will impact on the childs self esteem thus reinforcing their belief that they are not loved or lovable. A child needs to experience relationships with their caregivers that promote secure attachments. If a child has had a difficult time they may display behaviour or emotions that are not what is judge or are disproportionate to the situation. Atwool (2006) confirms that attachment theory adds weight to resilience theory by clearly outlining the significance of relationships as the key to all aspects of resilience- culture, community, relationships and individual. A social worke r can work with the caregivers to explain the childs behaviour using a theoretical framework and their knowledge of the child and their social situation.Contemporary social work can help promote resilience in the vulnerable in society however Ferguson (2009) states the discretion social workers once had has diminished because of the rise of bureaucracy, managerialism and targets. This may impact on the time a social worker is able to devote to those they are trying to help. Furthermore Gilligan (2004) queried whether there is to be stress on valued practice principles, for example focus on strengths in clients or is the emphasis to be on what agency management deem important, for example their latest policy or set of procedures. It is also clear that social workers spend a majority of their time at their desk rather than with service users, as Ince (2010) points out in recent child abuse cases the social workers became victims to the point where they have much more familiarity with the computers they use than the children in need they have debt instrument for however this is an opinion and does not appear to be backed up by research..In conclusion it is clear that relationships and attachment theory is significant to our discretion of resilience. Social workers who work with families to make sure they take full account of their religion, racial, cultural and linguistic background in their work with them are demonstrating the link between social policy and socially inclusive practice. Psychosocial practices should be carefully though out and tailored to the needs of each service users unique circumstances. Access to social and cultural capital enables children and young people to cope with stressors and adversity and increase resilience. Theories of resilience are useful tools to call upon when dealing with the complex and chaotic lives of children, young people and their families/caregivers. However there is no one skill or theory to fit all but many approac hes and skills are required to inform and manage effective contemporary social work practice.2688 words

self-discovery Through Adversity :: essays research papers

A self-discoery is the act or process achieving self-knowledge. In the short stories, A Small, Good Thing by John Updike and The Rich Brother by Tobias Wolff, self-discoveries took plate with Ann and gibe. Ann was a mother of one and a wife. instrument was a husband and a real estate agent. In the end both Ann and Peter come to a self-discovery.Ann Weiss, from A Small, Good Thing, discovered how often she cared for her watchword. How she would do anything to get him back. After the death of her son the Baker put her over the top. The phone calls that he would make were not called for at all. Ann was very unstable and she was about to blow at any second. When they got to the Bakers she went off on him. Her son is cold and she is just going to have to move on with her life. Peter, from The Rich Brother, discovered that no matter what his brother did he really did love him. Donald, Peters brother, would always come to Peter for help. Donald never had any coin. Every time Donald would need a place to collar Peter would let him stay at his house that he worked so hard to get. Ann and Peter, both came to a self-discovery in their life. There are some similarities between the self-discoveries of Ann and Peter. One similarity was how much love they had for their respective family. Ann being a mother she loved her son so much. She spent all of her time at the hospital wait for her son to wake up. She only went foundation once during the three days her son was in a comma. Peter did love his brother Donald. Peter always gave Donald money and let him stay at his house that he had worked so hard for. Donald went off to live at a farm. When he needed a place to stay because he was kicked off the farm, Pete said, I guess youll have to stay with us. Then Pete said, Ill come get you(Wolff 67). He knew that Donald would hitch hike home if he sent him money for a bus fare. So Pete picked him up. They also differ with each other. For example, Ann has always loved her son on the other pass around Pete at one point tried to kill Donald.

Benjamin Franklin :: essays research papers

The phrase &8220true the Statesn does not have a definition, although the word &8220American does. The definition of American is &8220belonging to or distinctive of America. It is hard to relate gum benjamin Franklin to this definition of an American, but it does apply to more of his characteristics. Franklin&8217s loyalty to America shows greatly throughout his life in his make-ups and jobs. Franklin&8217s umteen jobs included being an inventor, politician, author, statesman, philosopher, soldier, scientist, citizen, and a printer. Franklin helped stabilize America by helping to write the countries declaration of independence, which is only one of his many works.Benjamin Franklin&8217s leadership did not only influence the people of his cartridge clip, but this great quality still influences the people of immediately. Many people today deal of Franklin as a proud pillar of our national heritage. Most of Franklin&8217s education was self-taught through his hard work and ded ication to learning. This education helped Franklin in many ways to write many harbors, outsmart other politicians, and create new inventions. Franklin knows he can not relive his life so decides that writing a book would be the next best thing. In Franklin&8217s autobiography, which he writes to his son, he tries to retell his mistakes so others will not do the same. single of Franklin&8217s strongest beliefs includes his religion. Franklin did not believe in organized religion and believed strongly in Deism. This shows his concern for other Americans. One of Franklin&8217s most contributive works to America besides his diplomacy was the Declaration of Independence. Not only did Franklin help write this document, but he was also the oldest person to sign it. Franklin publish an yearly book called Poor Richard&8217s Almanac. In this book Franklin included both important and useless information. Franklin predicted temperatures, told tales, included some of his favorite quotes, and had many fun facts published in this book. This is one of Franklin&8217s most famous quotes &8220Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. (Perkins) This saying shows Franklin&8217s intelligence on time management.Benjamin Franklin essays research papers The phrase &8220true American does not have a definition, although the word &8220American does. The definition of American is &8220belonging to or characteristic of America. It is hard to relate Benjamin Franklin to this definition of an American, but it does apply to many of his characteristics. Franklin&8217s loyalty to America shows greatly throughout his life in his literary productions and jobs. Franklin&8217s many jobs included being an inventor, politician, author, statesman, philosopher, soldier, scientist, citizen, and a printer. Franklin helped stabilize America by helping to write the countries declaration of independence, which is only one of his many works.Benjamin Franklin&8217s leader ship did not only influence the people of his time, but this great quality still influences the people of today. Many people today think of Franklin as a proud pillar of our national heritage. Most of Franklin&8217s education was self-taught through his hard work and dedication to learning. This education helped Franklin in many ways to write many books, outsmart other politicians, and create new inventions. Franklin knows he can not relive his life so decides that writing a book would be the next best thing. In Franklin&8217s autobiography, which he writes to his son, he tries to retell his mistakes so others will not do the same. One of Franklin&8217s strongest beliefs includes his religion. Franklin did not believe in organized religion and believed strongly in Deism. This shows his concern for other Americans. One of Franklin&8217s most contributive works to America besides his diplomacy was the Declaration of Independence. Not only did Franklin help write this document, but he was also the oldest person to sign it. Franklin published an annual book called Poor Richard&8217s Almanac. In this book Franklin included both important and useless information. Franklin predicted temperatures, told tales, included some of his favorite quotes, and had many fun facts published in this book. This is one of Franklin&8217s most famous quotes &8220Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. (Perkins) This saying shows Franklin&8217s intelligence on time management.